Los Angeles may conjure up visions of sunny skies, palm trees and Hollywood stars. 

But another iconic image is LA’s gridlocked freeways, its infamous traffic becoming a core part of its identity – look no further than the opening scene of 2016 ‘Best Picture’ nominee La La Land, where hundreds of drivers sing and dance around their cars stuck in the standstill traffic of LA’s freeways.  

LA has consistently ranked among the top 10 worst US cities for congestion – as its mayor, Karen Bass, points out: “We’ve always been in love with our cars.”

In 2023, it had the ninth worst traffic in the USA, and a study found that in 2021 it had two of the top 10 most congested roads, including the number one spot. These congestion issues have contributed to poor air pollution across the city, and the state of California, with air pollution regularly exceeding WHO safe limits and higher EPA limits.   

It became a major talking point during the LA 1984 Olympics. And while there were temporary improvements at the time, the city has struggled to make a lasting impact. 

Now, with the Paris Olympics behind us and the Olympic flame passed on to LA, decision-makers are looking to rewrite the city’s Olympic history. Their bold aim? To host a “no-car Games”, drastically reducing congestion and improving air quality, especially for the elite athletes competing at the games. But the question remains, can LA finally solve its decades-old traffic and pollution problems and create a lasting legacy of clean air? 

Congestion issues 

LA was developed around its streetcar (tram) network. As the city sprawled outwards into suburban developments, its streetcar system grew outwards to connect these suburbs to the central business district (CBD) where most jobs were concentrated. This set up yielded higher profits, although streetcar construction and maintenance could not keep up with the increasing demand as population skyrocketed, leading to overcrowding and decline.  

Between 1905 and 1915, US car ownership grew from 77,000 to over two million, and streetcar usage declined. The car offered a convenient, less crowded and equivalently-priced alternative through jitney travel – an early form of carsharing. By 1925, as cars became cheaper and Americans richer, and car ownership exceeded 20 million, congestion was a major issue in LA. These systemic congestion issues persisted in the city and spread to the suburbs. 

In response, freeways financed by gas taxes were proposed as a solution, intended to enable continuous traffic flow with no traffic lights. However, by the 1960s, even these expressways were backed up during rush hour, thanks to increasing car-dependence and declining public transport systems. Despite road-widening projects to increase capacity in LA, congestion was inevitable.  

The rapid and widespread adoption of cars in LA, and the subsequent congestion, contributed to significant smog levels, with the earliest recorded critical level in the 1940s. This smog led to itching eyes, respiratory issues and was linked to neurological decline in young children. 

Thanks to cleaner fuels and new car technologies, the LA smog problem is no longer as critical as decades ago, though LA’s air quality remains poor. Some 98% of Californians are breathing unhealthy levels of fine particles or smog, and LA remains the city most affected by smog and with an air quality rating of ‘F’.  

The 1984 Olympics  

By the 1984 Olympics, the streetcar system was no longer operating, and congestion and smog remained of great concern to organisers and competitors alike. In order to combat the smog, around 4,000 businesses were asked to cut their production during the Games, and plans were made to reduce car usage, especially during peak hours.  

These plans heavily relied on community spirit with PSAs featuring celebrities urging locals to reduce their car journeys, and businesses being asked to stagger shifts for the benefit of the city. Car-sharing initiatives were promoted through widespread distribution of leaflets, and Operation Breezeway was introduced to further combat congestion by requiring deliveries to be made at night, reducing daytime lorry and van traffic. 

Bus lanes were implemented, the bus fleet was expanded and special, limited-edition transport tokens were designed. As a result, one in five spectators used buses during the Games. 

‘New’ technologies also played a role, with automated traffic surveillance and control significantly improving traffic flow for vehicles that were still on the road. Although the 1984 Olympics experienced unusually low levels of air pollution and congestion thanks to these initiatives, their effects were short-lived.  

Air pollution and athletes’ health  

During the 1984 Olympics, to minimise the impact of any persistent or residual smog on athletes, marathons were run early, in the mornings, when air pollution levels were at their lowest. Despite this, smog still made headlines when 800m runner Steve Ovett collapsed after the race, blaming asthma issues worsened by pollution. 

Concerns over the adverse effects of air pollution on athletes’ health have been prevalent at the Olympics since. As a result, many recent host cities have focussed on transport for pollution-reducing initiatives. Most recently, in Paris over 100 streets were shut, parking spaces were removed and over 800 miles of cycle lanes were constructed all with the aim of reducing air pollution.   

Harmful emissions from traffic congestion are not limited to exhaust-pipe fumes and particulate emissions, they include particles resulting from the wearing down of road surfaces, tyres and brakes. The main air pollutants identified as having adverse effects on human health are: Particulate Matter (PM) – most commonly PM25 and PM10- ; Carbon Monoxide (CO); Nitrous Oxides (NO_x); Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂); Ozone; Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs).  

Ozone, PM, NO₂ (a Nitrous Oxide) have been linked with eye, nose and throat irritation and breathing problems, whilst No2 and PM can also affect lung function and irritation. Ozone is often credited as the most impactful on health and athlete performance, given it is also linked to hospitalisations for respiratory issues and can affect cognitive function. 

CO also has a notable immediate impact on health and performance, causing an immediate drop in blood oxygen levels, which can lead to serious health issues and even mortality. Longer term, PM, Ozone and SO₂ can contribute to cardiovascular diseases, NO₂ can affect the liver, spleen and blood and PM can also impact the reproductive system.  

The concrete effects on performance of air pollution are unknown and will vary between athletes. However, a recent study found that training and competing with higher air pollution levels is associated with slower race times for runners. Similarly, other studies into team sports such as football and American football have shown drops in distance run, defensive performance, high-intensity effort and number of passes. 

The effects on cognitive function have also been highlighted among referees, showing more errors with worse air pollution. PM and Ozone are thought to be the most impactful on performance.  

Although it has been found that acclimatisation methods are possible to somewhat desensitise athletes to ozone levels, it is not an effective solution for the health impacts of other pollutants. Furthermore, it is not appropriate for asthmatic athletes, especially asthmatic endurance athletes, for whom severe asthmatic attacks and lung strain can pose serious safety risks.  

Walking, cycling and running alongside roads and traffic can result in high exposure to CO, NO_x, VOCs and PM not only for athletes, but also for spectators and residents, posing serious health threats that cannot be ignored.        

Looking Ahead to 2028 

The “Twenty-Eight by ‘28” project, introduced in 2017, ambitiously consists of 28 various public transport infrastructure initiatives to be completed in time for the 2028 Olympics, costing an estimated $4.9 bn. The projects include improvements to public transport infrastructure such as expanding existing light rail lines, and creating more reliable rapid bus services, many of which will be electrified. Projects also focus on highways and cycle and walking infrastructure, implementing express lanes for carpools and buses to travel in for free, tolls for solo drivers and constructing safe cycle and walking routes. 

Eighteen of the 28 projects are on course to be completed by 2028, with five already complete, while 10 are on track for completion following the Games. The light rail routes are a notable project among the delays, with four key projects likely to be delayed until the early 2030s. 

Therefore, plans for the 2028 Olympics largely centre around increased bus transport. It is estimated that up to 2,700 buses will need to be loaned from surrounding states, nearly doubling the existing LA fleet to meet the increased demand from the Games.  

In similar fashion to the 1984 Olympic Games, LA will appeal to its citizens’ civic pride, requesting local people not to drive to work, work staggered shifts or remotely during the Games. While this may be successful during the event, it is not a long-term solution. Many of these public transport projects aim to improve congestion, air pollution and have long-term benefits for residents, but concerns surrounding the extent of these benefits persist. 

There are worries about gentrification and displacement as a result of the investment in public transport, as well as calls for improving the affordability and safety of public transport before expanding it. However, LA is making good progress on its initiatives that have potential for long-standing benefits to residents’ health and mobility. For many underserved communities, these projects represent a crucial lifeline. As David Díaz (Executive Director of Active San Gabriel Valley), said in an interview with Boom California: “We are literally just trying to breathe.”

The challenge, therefore, will be addressing the concerns of locals to achieve a cultural change and increase use of these public transport routes after the excitement of the Games has passed. To achieve this, new transport infrastructure will need to be safe, convenient and affordable.  

It cannot be ignored that, in addition to traffic and congestion, LA may also need to prepare for the impact of wildfires and rising temperatures on its air quality, though these factors are far less controllable than congestion and public transport usage. 

Although a ‘car-free’ Olympics may not completely protect athletes from the risks of air pollution, LA has the opportunity to create a lasting legacy from the 2028 Games – one that brings real, positive change to the long-term health and well-being of its residents.  

And so, the ambition is clear, and the work is in motion, but whether LA can truly overcome its traffic and pollution challenges to create this legacy of clean air remains to be seen. In the words of the late city councilwoman Pat Russell discussing the progress made during the 1984 Olympics: “It would be a pity…to sacrifice the benefits we gained just because the Games are over . . . we can keep it going.” 

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